INTRASYSTEM
LINKS: APPEARANCE AND EVOLUTION OF BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
(The
results of the work [1] are stated in the present report)
Dnepropetrovsk,
49128, Ukraine
Date
of place: 26.04.2000
Evolutionary
complication of the substance from atomic nuclei till populations was provided
by corresponding system-generating factors. Conditions for the demonstration of
system-generating factors’ creative action emerged in the process of the
Universe evolution. But formation of the material systems in these conditions
occurred in conformity with their own internal patterns.
Physical-and-chemical systems
Strong interactions serve as
system-generating factor providing atomic nuclei formation and existence. Those
interactions create internal nuclear links (attracting forces) between nucleons
(protons and neutrons, protons and protons, neutrons and neutrons). Not all the
nucleon sets generate stable material system. It is considered that nearly 6
thousands of proton and neutron combinations can exist in nature, but only 280
of them are stable. Stable zinc isotopes contain 34, 36, 37, 38 and 40
neutrons. If neutron number is equal to 35 and 39 or more than 40 and less than
34, zinc nucleus turns out to be unstable. There are no nuclei consisting of 5
and 8 nucleons in nature. Instability of radioactive atomic nuclei is
determined by their internal structure [2]. The most stable nuclei have even
protons number and even neutrons number. Nuclei containing odd number of
protons and odd number of neutrons are unstable and rarely occur in nature. The
above mentioned data shows that, in the process of formation, atomic nuclei
were passing through internal selection, as they could be unstable by virtue of
inherent causes. Stable atomic nuclei constitute nonrandom sets of protons and
neutrons. Of many variants, internal selection had revealed nuclei with stable
internal links, existing also at present.
It should be noted that atomic nuclei
synthesis took place against the background of the variety of other particles,
representing, together with protons and neutrons, potential predecessors of
more complex material systems. In the period of synthesis of deuterium and
helium nuclei in the Universe, nearly 109 photons, electrons and
neutrinos fell on one nucleon [3].
Photons, neutrinos and hypothetical
gravitons predominated in the Universe under creation of hydrogen and helium
atoms. Impurities to those particles comprise 70% of protons (hydrogen atoms
nuclei) and 30% of nuclei of helium atoms and electrons [4]. Electromagnetic
interactions act as organizing factor, ensuring atoms’ formation and existence.
They create attracting forces between nucleus and electrons, thus forming material
object of the higher level of organization. Atomic nucleus charge uniquely
determines electrons’ number and structure of the electron envelope of neutral
atom.
Chemical (covalent) bond is the
system-generating factor, combining atoms into molecules. Attentive look at the
periodic table shows that anything but any atom combinations exist in nature in the form of stable molecules.
The inert gases (except for xenon and krypton) do not form chemical compounds.
There are no molecules of He2, Ne2, etc. in nature.
Chlorine does not form molecules with oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and iridium.
Iodine directly combines only with sulfur, phosphorus, iron, mercury and
hydrogen. Lithium is the only alkaline metal forming molecules with carbon.
Sulfur does not directly interact with nitrogen, gold, platinum, and so on [5,
6]. It is obvious, that not any sets of atoms form a molecule with stable
chemical bonds.
Structural-and-functional
components of a protein macromolecule are sub-units, domains, structures of the
ferments’ active center, a-helixes, b-layers and
other elements. Role of system-generating factor, ensuring formation and
existence of a protein molecule, belongs for the most part to hydrogen bonds,
and also to electrostatic forces, hydrophobic interactions, Van der Vaals
forces. Covalent (disulphide) bond stabilizes tertiary structure of the
protein, created by weak non-covalent interactions, and connects polypeptide
chains in certain oligomerous proteins with each other.
Polypeptides
serve as the predecessors of protein molecules. In accordance with [7],
amino-acid composition of proteinoids doesn’t reflect starting composition of
free amino acids. Relative amino acids’ content in polymers sharply differs
from their correlation in the initial mixture. Regardless of polymerization
initiator (temperature, catalysts), proteinoids contain, mainly, the most
strongly bound combinations of amino acids. It proves to be true by constancy of amino acid composition and
certain sequence of amino acids in a chain of polymers, statistically similar
to natural proteins by these characteristics. "Proteinoid has very limited
set of amino acid sequences, far from those astronomically large numbers of
probable random sequences, offered by
the people fond of formal calculations" [8].The most probable systems of all the possible ones are stable systems.
This and other data allows to
assert, that amino acid chains in the processes of pre-biotic synthesis were
also subjected to internal selection.
For the creation of a globular protein
molecule, formation of stable three-dimensional structure (native information)
of amino acids, by means of polymer (under normal temperature and pH
conditions) is required. Just in the course of spatial laying of amino acid
chain, structural-and-functional components, characterizing protein molecule,
arise. Polypeptides were also going through internal selection for ability to
generate native information. Not every polymeric chain of amino acids is
capable to form compact stable structure. Apparently, the significant part of
artificially synthesized poly- amino acids will form statistically unordered
structures, subject to continuous conformational rearrangements.
Viruses are
permolecular complexes, containing molecule of nucleic acid and a large
quantity of protein sub-units, laid in definite order and forming specific
three-dimensional structure. If primary synthesis of viruses is not considered,
the system-generating factor, providing formation and existence of virus
particles now, is the self-reproduction process (in specific conditions of
intracellular medium). Principle of two polynucleotide chains’ complementary
nature, based on complementary hydrogen bonds between pairs of purine and
pyrimidine bases, is used in this process. It should be noted that in contrast
to physical-and-chemical systems, viruses’ existence is based on principally
different system-generating factor. It is not a static physical factor
(attracting forces), but relatively complex biological process, consisting of a
number of intermediate stages. Self-reproduction provides continuous in time,
stable existence of viruses as specific biological objects. With it, stability
of separate particles of viruses, based on weak non-covalent interactions,
doesn’t influence the existence of viruses as a whole.
Creation of
unicellular organisms approximately 3,5 billions years ago proves, that in that
epoch in water phase of the Earth there were conditions, necessary for
realization of the creative action of system-generating factor having
principally new quality – metabolic links. If we consider cell without
metabolic processes, as certain static formation, it turns out that there is no
necessity in energy production, and, consequently, in mitochondria, in protein
synthesis and ribosomes, in cell division and nucleus, etc. Evidently, system-
generating action of metabolic links stipulated both formation and subsequent
evolution of cell organization and its structural-and-functional components.
Predecessors
of cells were phase-isolated open systems, like Oparin coacervate drops [9] and
Fox proteinoid micro-spheres [10], spontaneously arising in corresponding
conditions. Spontaneously running processes served as the vector, directing
chemical evolution of the organic substance. In numerous experiments,
reproducing conditions of the early Earth, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines,
fat acids, sugars were formed spontaneously. Polymer chains with non-random
amino acid sequence could spontaneously arise in comparatively simple
conditions. In the medium, containing salts and nucleotides in high
concentration, oligo-ribonucleotids are synthesized spontaneously. Also
spontaneously, by means of complementary bases’ coupling, PNA-copies can form.
Both these reactions are rather slow, but they take place without participation
of ferments or any other proteins. Macromolecules, belonging to different groups, are spontaneously combined
(by means of non-covalent bonds), generating permolecular complexes. Ribosome
RNA and proteins of the same type are spontaneously joined in the solution,
forming ribosomes. Namely sequence of spontaneously running processes,
alternating in the course of stepped complication of the organic substance, led
to the appearance of cell structure. Ferments themselves do not determine
reaction tendency. Without ferments, majority of biochemical reactions run
spontaneously, but rather slowly [11].
For amino acids’ entering into reaction
of polymerization, amino acids should stay in the condition of low stability,
compatible with their existence as integral objects. So, for combining of two
molecules it is necessary for them to
come into collision, be definitely oriented at the moment of collision
and have excess free energy. One of the factors increasing internal energy of molecules,
is the increase of temperature in the system. Amino acids in the process of
thermal co-polymerization randomly interact with each other. Naturally, a great
number of combinations of amino acids, which disintegrate before formation is
not taken into account in this process. Only final result is observed, namely,
availability of limited number of the variants of amino acid sequences. They
are observed just because they contain strongly coupled combinations of amino
acids. While a number of those combinations is limited, this is interpreted as
self-organization of amino acids [7]. Creation of the stable polymer was not
one-act process. It took certain time. By means of cut-and-try method, polymer
being generated was growing on account of separate amino acids, as well as
short stable sections of amino acid chains.
Material base for arising of primary
cells was availability of the great number of phase-isolated open systems,
similar to proteinoid micro-spheres, in various fields of the Primary Ocean.
Clusters of isolated systems were in rotation – new systems emerged instead of
the old ones. For the evolutionary transformation of isolated systems, they
must be in the state of disturbed stability, compatible with their existence as
integral objects. Stable systems, not responding to the external and internal
effects, are not able to evolutionary changes. One of the factors, reducing
stability of the isolated systems, could be comparatively high temperature of
water medium. Non-specific external effects resulted in frequent local damages
of the outer membrane, causing reduction of the volume of isolated systems. As
a result, concentration of the amino acids and other molecules located in the
internal cavity increased, as well as speed of interaction between them. Those
interactions had random character. Of a number of reactions, processes of
synthesis of soluble proteinoids with the aid of primitive catalysts turned out
to be essential for stability of the isolated systems. Part of proteinoids
synthesized was built in the outer membrane, maintaining its integrity and
optimal dimensions. The other part, interacting itself and with the other
molecules, including nucleic acids, formed different structures inside isolated
systems. Fluctuations of the volume of isolated systems could serve as primitive
regulator of speed of proteinoids’ synthesis. Isolated systems, able to active
long-term maintaining of their own integrity, differed from the similar inert
formations, which were not existing long. Processes of maintaining of the
isolated systems’ integrity initiated generation of metabolism. Later on,
processes of synthesis and destruction became one of the defining properties of
living organisms.
Structures, formed in the inner cavity of
isolated systems, were different by possible functional demonstrations. They
randomly interacted with each other. During long period of time in the isolated
systems various combinations of structures occurred, combined by the sequences
of reactions binding them. Sequence of reactions, representing primitive
process of the coded polypeptides’ synthesis, was the most important for
stability of isolated systems among different processes. Emerging of the
genetic code meant spontaneous transition of the cell structure being formed
from less stable condition into more stable one. Isolated systems, which by
virtue of the internal reasons couldn’t proceed to the usage of information
molecules, proved to be insufficiently stable and further disappeared.
Finally, it seems important to note the
following. Combining amino acids into definite (non-random) sequences, covalent
bonds create stable polymeric systems. It is natural, recurring, irreversible
result. In the process of poly-amino acids’ synthesis a great number of
disintegrated combinations of amino acids with unstable covalent bonds fall on
limited number of stable polymers. Stable products of the thermal
poly-condensation of amino acids are the result of simultaneous action of
system-generating factor (covalent bond) and internal selection. Similarly to
this, when combining structures (and separate molecules) of the isolated
systems by means of definite (non-random) sequences of reactions, metabolic
bonds create stable cell system. It is also natural, recurring, irreversible
result. Processes, running in a primary cell, provided its self-assembly,
self-regulation and reproduction at the primitive level. In the process of cell
formation, a huge number of variants with unstable metabolic bonds fell on
limited number of stable variants of proto-cell systems. The stable cell system
is the result of joint action of system-generating factor (metabolic bonds) and
internal selection.
Primary organisms had appeared not in
some peaceful haven, as random and delicate formation. It was global event,
covering water space of the planet. The life, originated in conditions of the
early Earth, was obviously never on the verge of survival. Due to high
concentration of the organic molecules in various fields of the ocean, cells
appeared in riverside, in the water column, in sea-floor areas. Considerable
masses of primary organisms emerged at the same time, distinguished by
morphological structure and peculiarities of metabolism. The life, emerged on
the Earth, had many sources of its origin.
Spontaneous processes of generation of
stable atomic nuclei, atoms, molecules and macromolecules are evolutionary,
irreversible changes of the substance. Those objects can’t disintegrate
spontaneously. Transition of hydrogen atom into excited (and less stable)
condition is performed only under the influence of external factors (for
example, under action of electromagnetic radiation). Reverse transfer into
principal (the most stable) state occurs spontaneously, i.e. under the action
of system-generating factor (electromagnetic bond). Similarly, renaturation of
a protein molecule also occurs under the influence of system-generating factor
(hydrogen bonds). Being in the state with the most stable internal links,
neither atom nor molecule are capable of evolution at the same levels of
organization (atomic and molecular ones). Accordingly, these objects can’t form
far more stronger electromagnetic and hydrogen links.
Primary primitive cells proved to be
incapable of long-term evolution. Cells evolution process consisted mainly in
complication of its structural-and-functional components, in the course of
which efficiency of metabolic bonds increased. Suffice it to say, that in the
presence of ferments’ speed of corresponding biochemical reactions can increase
million and more times. Nikolis and Prigozhin [12] suppose, that increase of
complexity in the process of evolution is the result of structural fluctuations
(which reason can be mutations and other changes), occurring in the initially
stable system. Among the number of fluctuations in cell structures, the variants
insignificantly increasing efficiency of some reactions and processes emerged.
While the system spontaneously turns to the state with more stable internal
bonds, the emerging changes, favorable for such transitions, induced, finally,
strengthening of interactions inside the system or between the system and
environment. Negative influence of fluctuations, somewhat weakening the bonds
between certain cell components, was compensated in accordance with the known
Le Shatelle principle, on account of inner reconstruction of the metabolic
processes.
Thus, metabolic bonds, their necessity
and organizing action stipulated appearance of the cell system, general plan of
structural organization, properties of the most important components and
central metabolic ways, connecting them. The life appeared as a result of
processes of progressive complication of organic substance, going in extended
front, under natural and hardly noticeable transfer of chemical evolution into
biological one, on the vast, numerous, differing by their conditions, water
areas of the Earth [13].
Approximately 570 mln. years ago, the
first multi-cellular organisms appeared on the Earth. Organizing factor,
combining tissues, organs and systems of multi-cellular organism into integral
biological object, are morphogenetic, genome, functional, regulatory,
coordinating and other bonds [14, 15]. The same bonds, acting as the
system-generating factor, served as the base for appearance and evolution of
multi-cellular organisms. Predecessors of multi-cellular systems were,
apparently, mainly spherical, hollow, homogeneous colonies, generated by
dividing cells. A great number of such colonies appeared in different fields of
ancient seas. The colonies, which under the influence of non-specific external
effects remained in the state of low stability, compatible with their
existence, were undergoing evolutionary complication. Direct cause of the
colonies’ stability reduction could be weakening of inter-cellular links in the
outer layer and cells’ outcome into the environment, as a result of damage,
disturbance of inter-cellular contacts, death. Reconstruction of the colonies
in these conditions occurred mainly on account of reproduction of the cells,
located in the inner cavity [16]. Reduction of the total volume of the colony,
under decrease of cells’ number in the outer layer, resulted in the increase of
cells concentration and biologically active compounds, in particular,
substances of growth, emitted by them, in the inner cavity. It is supposed
[16], that the first manifestation of differentiation, typical for the
multi-cellular organisms, was their division into somatic and sexual. Cells,
reproduced in the inner cavity of the colonies, as a result of structural
fluctuations, connected with discriminative expression of the genetic
potencies, differed between each other by possible functional manifestations.
Those cells spontaneously formed various structures of possible predecessors of
the tissues and organs. Outer layer of cells also participated in the generation
of external structures. Internal selection had revealed combination of the
primitive structural-and-functional components, which functions’ coordinated
realization ensured stable existence and reproduction of primary multi-cellular
organisms. The evolution of multi-cellular organisms consisted, mainly, in the
processes of structural-and-functional components’ complication, in the course
of which efficiency of the internal bonds between the components, as well as
links with the environment, increased.
In various groups of the animals,
considerable number of genetically controlled morphologic defects with lethal
action was revealed. In particular, in pigs and calves the following was
noticed: absence of extremities; calcification of the lower jaw joint;
reduction of the vertebras rudiments, accretion of ribs with vertebras,
availability of six or seven ribs at all; calcification of all the joints; lack
of the lower jaw; reduction in cervical and thoracic vertebras’ number;
formation of the crack in the skull roof; underdevelopment of the first lobe of
hypophysis; backbone splitting; cephalocele; skull-and-face displasia; backbone
shortening and lungs underdevelopment, etc. [17]. Obliteration of nostrils,
mouth, oesophagus foramen or anus quiet often occurs; sometimes there are no
cerebrum, head, heart. Defects stipulating sterility of the animals are also
known, namely, underdevelopment of testicles and vagina, obliteration of the
oviduct and vagina. Stable and wide expansion in nature of the lethal mutations
and sterility was shown under investigation of fruit-fly populations [18].
By conventional classification,
hereditary diseases belong to the endogenous ones. Corresponding genotypes
respond to normal, standardized medium by formation of the phenotype lacking
vitality [17]. Inability of the forms of multi-cellular organisms to exist
individually or (and) be reproduced has, consequently, the inner reasons. Under
this organization, combination and properties of the structural-and-functional
components, as well as the possibilities of its interaction with the medium,
morphogenetic, functional, coordinating and other vitally important links
between the organs and systems are disturbed, ineffective or completely absent.
Even under favorable ambient conditions (absence of competitors, predators,
parasites, availability of food, water, optimal physical conditions, etc.),
those forms are helpless or not reproduced. This data directly indicate the
existence of internal selection in the world of living creatures. Not only the
processes of primary formation of multi-cellular organisms, but also their
further evolution had been constantly controlled by the internal selection.
During hundred millions of the evolution years, the internal selection
eliminated a great number of not viable and not reproduced forms.
Structural-and-functional components of
the population are the persons with individual genotypic (and phenotypic)
changeability. As it is known, all the population persons, possessing any
peculiarity, can be located by degree of its development in a row, beginning
from those, in which the given peculiarity is the weakest, and ending with the
persons with its strongest development [19]. Role of the organizing factor,
providing formation and evolution of the populations, is performed by the
exchange genetic bonds. In all the kingdoms of animate world, including
bacteria and viruses, one or another methods of genetic material exchange exist
[20]. Recombination creates main part of the individual genetic variability in
the populations with syngenesis [21].
It was mentioned earlier, that essence of
the evolution of cells and multi-cellular organisms consists in the processes
of increase in efficiency of the internal links between the components of those
biological systems, as well as external relations with the environment.
Similarly to this, content of the populations’ evolution process is mainly in
the increased efficiency of exchange genetic bonds. Efficiency of the genetic
material exchange correlates with the efficiency of generation of the genetic
variants, occurring as a result of mutation and recombination processes. In the
populations of animals with syngenesis, efficiency of exchange genetic
processes was growing in accordance with the complication of morphological
structure and improvement of the function of reproducing organs, development of
secondary sexual characters, corresponding behavioral reactions etc. Population
stability is based on the genetic variability, created by recombination
processes. Genetic variability adds plasticity to the population structure in
changing conditions of the environment. Change of the population genotype
composition is not an evolutionary act, because this modification is reversible
one. Change of the population genotype structure represents differential
expression of the population genome, depending on the environmental conditions,
thus, population modification. In this case population break-up into two or
several groups can be considered the process of phylogenetic differentiation of
starting population in heterogeneous conditions of its existence.
Evolution of the organisms could run only
at the population level of organization. Within population systems, new organs
appeared in multi-cellular organisms; plants and animals came on dry land;
airspace development took place, etc. Requirement of the natural selection
results from the population character itself. Abundance of posterity creates
excess variety in the population. As a result of the action of stabilizing
selection, population has maximally possible variability range by any
phenotypic characteristic in the given conditions. Adjustment types of the
birds’ paws [20] appeared as a result of joint action of the system-generating
factor, internal selection, mutations and re-combinations, and natural
selection. System-generating factor has provided appearance and further
development of the paws. Internal selection eliminated non-viable forms by this
characteristic. Mutations and re-combinations created variety in the details of
birds’ paws structure. Natural selection performed “adjustment” of the
population by this feature to the specific environmental conditions,
eliminating less viable forms. By this reason the paws’ peculiarities in
different birds look like so surprising. Modification change of the population,
accompanied by directed selection, provides integrity of the population and its
genome. Population is the above-organism heterogeneous system. Considerations
about organisms, possessing good, in comparison with the others, variants of
characteristics, are not entirely rightful at the population level of
organization. On base of the genetic variability, natural selection provides
maximum possible correspondence of population to the environment. In this case
destiny of the eliminated forms doesn’t influence the population stability as a
whole.
Final observations
1. Evolutionary complication of the substance had the directional
character. Its direction is stipulated by the necessity of system-generating
factors, which marked the levels of organization of inanimate substance –
atomic nucleus, atom, molecule. These objects were discovered in the
investigated areas of the Universe. Conditions for the further evolutionary
complication of the substance in the organic form occurred on the Earth.
System-generating factors presupposed the main stages of biological evolution –
cells, multi-cellular organisms, populations. Realization of the creative
action of system-generating factors stipulated spontaneous nature of the processes
of formation and evolution of the biological systems.
2. A great number of stable material
systems of the lower level of organization served as possible predecessors of
the following, higher level of organization.
3. Variety of the material systems at every
level of organization was limited by the internal selection framework. Outside
that framework there were numerous systems with unstable links between the
components, comprising them. It follows that existing systems - from atomic
nuclei till populations – are non-random sets of components. These are systems
with stable internal bonds, and for biological systems also with external ones.
4. Transition of the excited atom into
principal state, renaturation of the protein molecule, reconstruction of the damaged
cell, restoration of the genotypic and numerical composition of the population
after short-term action of the external eliminating agent – these are examples
of the systems’ spontaneous transition from less stable state into more stable
one. Those transitions are based on the action of corresponding
system-generating factors, namely, electromagnetic, hydrogen, metabolic bonds
and exchange genetic links. Thus, a conclusion can be drawn that the ability of
biological systems to transition from less stable state to more stable one,
based on corresponding system-generating factors, appeared together with
generation of those systems.
5. Conformational rebuilding of the
ferments molecules in the course of catalytic cycle, cell differentiation,
morpho-functional responses of plants’ and animals’ organisms to changes in the
temperature, humidity, lighting, nutrition; changes in genotypic structure of
the populations of butterflies, pest insects, gray rats etc., under the
influence of changed environmental conditions – these are internal
re-constructions of the systems, induced by changed external conditions, thus, modification changes, correspondingly,
at the level of protein macromolecule, cell, multi-cellular organism and
population. By Schmalgausen [22], “modification is the variant of already
existing organization” (Table).
Table.
Material systems and system-generating factors, ensuring their formation and
existence
|
Physical-and-chemical systems |
Biological system |
||
|
System |
System-generating factor |
System |
System-generating factor |
|
Atomic nuclei |
Strong interactions (bonds) between nucleons |
Virus |
Complementary hydrogen bonds between pairs of purine and pyrimidine bases in two-chain mole- cule of nucleic acid (as the base for self- reproduction process) |
|
Atom |
Electromagnetic bonds between nucleus and electrons |
Cell |
Metabolic bonds, providing formation and evolution of the cell systems |
|
Molecule |
Chemical (covalent) bonds between the atoms |
Multi-cellular organism |
Morphogenetic, genome, functional, coordinating and other bonds, providing formation and evolution of multi-cellular systems |
|
Protein macro-molecule |
Hydrogen bonds and other weak non-covalent interactions, providing formation and existence of the protein native conformation |
Population |
Exchange genetic bonds, providing formation and evolution of the population systems |
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